The Expectations Augmented Phillips Curve Essay

The Expectations Augmented Phillips Curve Essay History has developed into two aspects, before and after the era of 1975, with a broad unanimity about the development of pre-1975, which is well apprehend (understood). Bifurcation starts in 1975, when the Philips curve break down into two fork (branches) of the road with having a little interaction between two branches or forks. As we look towards the major contribution of the paper, by the source of bifurcation (divide it into branches) in order to examine the contributions of the forks that occur post 1975. The pre history of the Philips curve before 1975 is straightforward and clear in its manner. Philips initially discover the history of existing negative relationship between inflation and unemployment named as Philips curve, that was afterward popularized by Samuelson and Solow, and then followed by the period when the policy maker were supposing to feat the trade-off between them in order to reduce the unemployment on the cost of increasing inflation. For that development of Friedman, Phelps and lucas conquered the policy feat trade-off in favor of long run monetary impartiality. When Sargent explained the failure of their tests of impartiality, made refusal on the implemented econometric version of Philips curve in the 1960s wound, and finally they were condemned to the destroyed twist of the negative correlation between the unemployment and inflation in the era of 1960s converted to the positive in 1970s by the lucas and Sargent. The impartial architect and the adversary of Keynesian trade-off emerged victory with having major caveats of that concerned model were unconvincing as well as their price surprises all were conducting many mistakes without any supporting evidences. Literature of Philips curve split in two dimensions after 1975 (the era of evolution of PC), when everyone failed to recognize the contribution of others. The other section reviews the consistent, energetic and dynamic aggregate demand and supply framework that come into front in late 1970s in theoretical contribution and in textbooks of macro economics. This approach is determined, because the inflation rate is dominated by the perseverant in form of different long lags as compared to past inflation rate. In the main stream approach the major important difference is that the post inflation rate is unlimited to form the expectations, but also involves the perseverant effect due to the wage and price the contracts of fixed-duration, also the lags of unripe material and final goods prices. Due to the demand and supply shocks inflation dislodged from its past sluggish values. This approach of econometric implementations sometime called triangle because it showing the three cornered supply, demand and inertia. As the results of supply shocks, the approach describes the inflation and unemployment peaks in the era of 1970s and early 1980s, that provides the proportional analysis of valley of low unemployment and inflation in late 1990s. It may emphasize that unemployment and inflation can either be negatively and positively correlated and also depending on the supply shocks and responses. During the era of early and mid 1960, the three phases of Philips curve developed e following results. Firstly, the Philips curve provide the policy maker with a menu of different options. Secondly, the policy advisors of the Kennedy and Johnson government, that led by Walter Heller having support from Robert Solow and James Tobin, they made discussion that the previous Republican government (administration) had chosen a point too far south east along with the Philips curve trade-off, that time considered precious because of getting the country move again from south east to north-west. President Kennedy got some sort of recommendations from Hellers group relevant to the major cuts in federal income taxes and these were implemented by the Johnson government in two phases of 1964 and 1965 after the death of president. Samuelson and Solow had calculated the unemployment rate in the late 1963 that was 5.5% and compatible along zero inflation, so it was suitable to implement the expansion ary fiscal policy of Kennedy-Johnson that accelerate the inflation even without loosening the floodlight fiscal trend due to the war of Vietnam. We refer to examine the period of 1960 to 1971by taking the quarterly data of US inflation and unemployment and then return to the same picture of evolution of Philips curve debate started in the post 1971 about the inflation and unemployment. Third aspect was the rate of unemployment fall below 5.5% in 1964 and remained below 4% in between 1966 to 1970. The ups and down in inflation remained compatible in econometric model with having the natural unemployment rate (consistent with steady inflation rather than the zero inflation) in the range of 5.5% 6.0%. Another aspect of that period was the invention of mainframe (the super electronic computer). For the first time, the computer made it practical to estimate the large scale econometric models contained in (Formm and Tauban 1968). These model consisted of two equations. The main explanatory variable in that equation of incorporated Philips curve was the unemployment rate, sometimes the rate of change of unemployment rate, some variables measure the expected inflation of sets of lags and on tax rates. In the equation of price level to the wage level the estimated change of wage was typically translated into the inflation rate and adjusted for the productive tendency, the so called unit labor cost tendency. Demand was intensively measured and responds by the price-labor cost ratio. The price-labour cost ratio or mark-up was allowed to respond to a measure of demand, this particular situation related to the productive market not to the unemployment rate, such as the ratio similar to the unfilled shipment orders. The inflation rate depend on the rate of change of unemployment in the reduce form of this approach where it measure the demand as well as different lags of inflation. With dealing the challenge of Friedman-Phelps natural rate hypothesis, a problem encountered showing the conflict in the data taken in the late 1960s. Although, the pertaining competition, the feature was devoted among the different departments of economics working at the University of Chicago, dealings happening in between Milton Friedman and Franco Modigliani. A debate occurred between them in 965 by their co-authors over the issue that only monetary policy mattered or only fiscal policy mattered and debated seemed fantastic when the results were based on IS-LM model showed that both the fiscal and monetary policy mattered in estimation of PC by excluding some extreme cases. The presidential address of Friedman (1968) comprised of two sections that had a main point which was closely correlated.   First, it signified the faster inflation due to showing the inefficiency in control of nominal interest rate by the central bank and it adds fuel toward the inflation fire in the economy. Second, it showed the importance of Philips curve debate and derived conclusion by said that the policy makers had no ability to select any other unemployment rate rather than the natural rate of unemployment and excluded from the macroeconomic structure of the product and the labor market. Another more desirable and suitable interpretation about the natural rate of unemployment was given that showed the compatibility with accurate inflation rate which comprised the slow and steady inflation rate. Analysis which was not neutral based on the policy trade off had ignored the expectations that used for adjustment purposes. By consider an economy proceeding at the natural rate of unemployment and also based on the 1% inflation rate was precisely prevented.   By pushing the unemployment rate below the natural unemployment rate can tend the economy towards the north east of the short run Philips curve and the consequences appeared in form of increasing the actual inflation rate. But if the agents noticed that the inflation rate become higher as compared to the initial anticipated inflation rate of 1%, the inflation expectations become higher and it shift the short run Philips curve higher. And the process will continue unless and until the rate of unemployment reached at the natural rate of unemployment. So, the Friedmans timing to address becomes weird and impeccable. According to the verbal predictions of the model given by Friedman, The fiscal expansion of Kennedy-Johnson that included both the spending on Vietnam War and tax cuts that also accompanied by the monetary accommodations had not only push the rate of unemployment down to 3.5% from 5.5% but in each year in between 1963 to 1969 the rate of inflation become swift. The large sca le econometricians who had estimated the unemployment rate of 4% and also forecasted the inflation rate become perplex that how the acceleration of inflation had been exceeded from year to year. Defamers of Friedman attacked on the verbal model given by him and used to motivate the natural rate, when the econometricians become well aware of their failures regarding to forecast the acceleration of inflation in late 1960s and in later the model become fooling model. According to the employers expectations related to price level a thought given by Friedman that are always accurate but the employees remained dissatisfied of the expected prices that does not respond to the actual price level. When the business expand, the prices raises more than the ratio of wages, so the need is to provide the incentives to the employees in order to bridge up the gap of lower real wages, as they remained fail to fulfilled their expectations to adjust the prices.   Friedmans verbally assumed model become implausible, as the workers had complete access of the Consumer price index and were well known about the actual prices prevailing in the market. There could no business cycle in the world of Friedman. The credit of co-discovering the natural hypothesis was given to Phelps (1967, 1968). In juxtaposition, the Friedman distinction was in between dumb workers and smart firms, but in Phelpss world everyone is dumb considered equally fooled. The general price level rises in the rest of economy as both the workers and the firm seems the price rises in the industry and the consequence was to increase the production level. So the Phelps developed a model in which employees treated separate from the information of the economy. The workers quit regularly from one firm to another firm in order to get the high wages and the unemployment become frictional. But the workers does not quit as the same firms offered them the high wages. Without their knowledge t he unemployment rate became low, and at the same time all the firms raised the wages by the same proportion of the money. The macroeconomic data registered a decline in the unemployment as the employees became fooled of declining the frictional unemployment rate. Hence there prevail a correlation in between the rate of unemployment and wage rate, but due to this situation the expectations are incorrect. The criticism directed to the Friedman verbal fooling model as well as applied to Phelps model, whether the firms or employees became fooled or both of them treated in the same direction. But the workers and the employees got information of consumer price index on monthly basis and buy different goods and services smoothly. So the consequences appeared by said that, if the countrys GDP is very high and the unemployment rate become low then the aggregate prices goes up, so the workers and firm can learn many more from the past expectations and can use their experience In the proper wa y. The Origins of the Phillips Curve Alban Philips was the first name of Philips curve which is afterward known as Philips curve, when an econometric survey was conducted in United Kingdom in the era of 1861 to 1957 in order to examine the behavior of money wage and unemployment. To justify this behavior Philips did not had any macroeconomic model, then by took help from theoretical thought he made a statistical model. Philips argued that when few are unemployed and the demand for labor is very high we should expect from employers to bid the wage rates up rapidly (Philips, 1958, p: 283). So according to him, the wages can be increased with having a low unemployment rate. And the other aspect was, there prevail a highly non linear relationship, as the workers will not accept the low wages when there prevail a high unemployment rate in the economy, so the wages fall slowly. Two other factors are also state by Philips named as the rate of change in the retail prices and the business cycle (Philips 1958, p:283). To find the evidences, that the negative relationship exists in the wage rate and unemployment, Philips enquire into three period separately from 1861 to 1913, 1913 to 1948 and 1948 to 1957 respectively (Philips, 1958, p:299). No worth was given to this because in 1926, Irving Fisher has already been found this relationship (Fisher 1973). While after in 1960, this work was named as Philips curve1, when Samuelson and Solow repeated the work of Philips in United States (Samuelson and Solow, 1960). In 1960 this article the Philips curve became very much important and central for any of the macroeconomic discussion, thinking and policy. 2.2 Expectations-Augmented Phillips Curve The Phillips curve broke down in its original form after the 1960s. And the expected augmented Philips curve was the new form of Philips curve. First to find out why the original relationship broke down, the analysis of original framework of Philips curve is important. As we facing a high inflation rate now a days. We became used to of this situation, as the prices become high day by day, the wages increases and we face inflation. In the statistical terms the price follows a random tendency. In the last year USA faced negative inflation, Austria faced it in 1955 and for the last time in 1953 when the inflation was negative (Blanchard, 2006). Inflation was sometimes negative and followed by a white noise before the World War 1, when the gold standard was still inefficient (Mankin and Reis, 2002). So the Philips curve discovered negative relation and the analysis was done for the white noise inflation period. In that period when the household expected no inflation or zero inflation in the economy, the wage-price spiral as discussed in the Philipss article, as follows: As the low unemployment directs the firms to increase the wages The increased wages leads to higher prices And the higher prices will direct the workers to demand higher wages So the low unemployment leads inflation in the above framework. In 1970s this form of model broke down in USA due to its failure to incorporate the economic behavior of the human being in the right and correct way. In 1970s there were two important things that provided a clear proof of this fact. First, this model was called the Philips schedule but later on this model and the whole article switched up to Philips curve. On the other hand the world was already faced two oil shocks and inflation considered as the permanent phenomenon, people has been expecting inflation in order to bid up their wages (Blanchard, 2006).To make it able an analysis about influences conducted to include the price shocks and expectations in the model. There are three components of Philips curve are as follow: Demand Pull inflation: If the inflation is below its structural rate of 3% the inflation is called demand pull inflation that tend to increase due to the aggregate demand. Cost-pushh inflation: This inflation refers to the supply shocks. Low supply directs the firm to increase the prices, so this causes higher inflation. Expectations: People expect more about inflation and when the prices rise they bid up the wages. So, it can be said as there exists the negative relationship in between cyclical unemployment and unanticipated money wage. No doubt, many economists agreed upon that the classical quantity theory of money is inconsistence with the stable long run Philips curve that shows the trade-off between the inflation and unemployment. In the quantity theory of money, money stock changes can only affect the nominal variables and the price while the impact became nil in real variables. By Juxtaposition, Philips curve explained that the money growth rate can raise the level of output and increase employment. Now the question arises how could the economists frequently cleave two opposite views? According to the great eighteenth century economists of Scott land and the philosopher, the question centralized to the disputation over the contributions of David Hume (1711-1776). For example, Thomas Mayer argued that, the David assuredly rejected the trade-off between the inflation and unemployment because it is incompatible with quantity theory of money.   According to the Mayer, as the quantity theory of money is central for the David Hume likewise the Philips curve trade-off is also central to the Davids economics because if this trade-off exists in the economy, it also affect the quantity theory of money as well and the consequences are in form of prices that do not increases in quantity theory of money. Similarly, Frenkel quotes Davids creed in the neutrality of quantity theory as (the money stock can only affect the nominal variables) as an proof of Davids rejection of the Philips curve. Frenkel says, there is an evidence that David Hume did not trust in the long run Philips curve Trade-off, the overpowering inclination of Humes and the important feature of monetary theory had been the assertion objective of the money neutrality which states, the monetary policy perform no longer pressure on the real variables. Mayer and Frenkel, no doubt, admitted that during the transitional period, money wages can affect the inflation, output a nd unemployment. But if there is no long run Philips curve trade-off, it can only affect the temporary real effects that can vanish while after.   According to the Charles Nelson controversy, who claims that the David Hume is in need to show trust in the long run Philips curve trade-off as it is unique in its functions. Nelson says, the money stock in quantity theory can raise the output, wages, prices and employment permanently. Therefore, David Hume was believed in the long run Philips curve. The purpose of this discussion is to show and remove the controversy to the content of Mayer and Frenkle and the Hume did believe in the quantity theory of money and the long run Philips curve trade-off as well. The purpose of this study is to correct the both phenomenon which are partially mistaken and contrary to Mayer and Frenkle, and David Hume should trust in stable long run Philips curve with contrary to the suggestions given by Nelson, that Hume was not alone to accept this stable Philips curve but Henry Thornton was also joined with him (1760 to 1815), perhaps the primary fiscal theorist of the nineteenth century at British tradi tional school; and eventually, that neither Hume nor Thornton compete that the real possessions of a steady, unrelenting rate of money growth were controlled to a concise execution period but idea of those possessions could persist for an imprecise phase. More precisely, the article shows that both Thornton and Hume notorious among levels and rates of conversion of the money hoard, that they held the preceding work to be unbiased and the later partial with deference to definite fiscal variables, and that this variation resolve their conviction in both the long run Philips curve and the quantity theory of money. Moreover the article shows that, even if both Thornton and Hume thought in the continuation of a steady long-run Phillips curve, they varied concerning the attraction of utilizing that association for policy purposes, Hume errand and Thornton disparate such a policy.   The vision of Hume and Thornton are imperative not just as they show that at least two foremost classical quantity theorists accepted the Philips curve, but as well as they demonstrate how divergent policy prescription can obtain from the similar fundamental theoretical framework. According to Hume, the long run trade-off, though, the same is not accurate of a stable sequence of such fiscal increase. He deliberate such increase would, if preserve over a permanent sequence of intermediary modification period, apply stable real effects. That is, he emphasized the actual consequence of a unrelenting fiscal extension, thus timely Adam Smiths aside that Mr. Humes analysis is remarkably inventive. He look, though, to have left a modest into the concept that community luxury consists in wealth. (9; p. 197 quoted in 7; p. 136) absolutely bigheaded that prospect of future inflation would always remain nil and then would never go into price and wage demands, Hume asserted that a repeatedly inc reasing money stock would ever more protest in front of prices and wage, always annoying their 1 Humes oversight of inflationary prospect could be clarified on at least three basis.   First, he was unfolding a world clanging inflation rate relatively low (1-3 % per year on average) through recent principles, perchance insufficient to achieve the least observation entrance requisite for the creation of inflation prospect. Second, specified a clanging fiscal standard, one could disagree on prosperity basis that the anticipated long term inflation rate is nil. The basis, certainly, is that if the reserve of fiscal metal were primarily growing at an inflationary velocity so as to lift the metal price of goods as well as labor. The consequential drop in the purchasing power of metal mutual with the increasing labor cost of drawing out it would persuade mine owners to restrain clanging production to non inflationary stage. Furthermore, the inflationary over production of gold would, through lower its worth comparative to further goods, provide the later supplementary gainful to fabricate than gold, thus repeatedly scrutinize the over production of gold. Emphasize this p rice stabilize production effect would be a move in the demand for gold from monetary to non monetary uses as golds value as money declines. Third, the discovery of gold and silver mines in the New World could be observed as random, casual events having an expected value of approximately zero. For these reasons, Humes understandable that either the monetary change is relatively positive or negative. That real wage rate is as harmful to industry, when silver and gold are retreating, as it is beneficial when these metals are rising. particularly, in the devaluation case of pessimistic money growth, The laborer has not at the same employment from the producer and merchant although he pays the same price for all things in the marketplace. The farmer cannot organize of his corn and livestock; while he has to pay the similar rent to his landowner. The poverty as well as beggary, and sluggishness, which must follow are simply anticipated. [3; p. 40]   Here is Humes strain on the actual consequence and inconsequentiality correspondingly, of rates of change vs. unlimited quantity of money. This stress is also obvious in the subsequent way, in which he terminates that it is of no substance of result, with considering to the household pleasure of a state, whether money is in lesser or in larger quantity. The good and efficient policy of the magistrate based only on its maintenance. If likely, still rising as by those resources, he maintains lively strength of tat manufacturing unit in the state, and enlarge the reserve of labor, in which consists all actual authority and riches. About this course, Blaug observes that Humes demand for a frequent inflow of valuable metals quantity to a demand for a unremitting sequence of intermediary phases through which inflationary money growth constantly and everlastingly motivate trade. [1; p. 20] Here is Humes observance to the long run Philips curve. Here also is his settlement of that perception with his quantity theory. There is no argument between the two theories, his deliberation, since the one refers to rates of modify and the other to substitute levels of the money stock. Phillipss inference In the 1950s, Alban William Hoosegow Phillips tried to determine the neoclassical anomaly [68-73]. Phillips, who had degree in electrical engineering (1938) and sociology with economics (LSE, B. A., 1949) [10], was viewing how to erect a water flow model as a similarity of the neoclassical income expenditure model. The final replica frequently was symbolized in arithmetical terms, but some economic students had complexity with mathematics. Both these two models (hydraulic and income expenditure model could be explained by the way of discrepancy calculus. The hydraulic machine, though, was evident and understandable to students. The machine, explained in Phillipss Ph.D. thesis, provoked his selection as assistant lecturer at the LSE in 1950. In explanation of the machine, Phillips alert on modifying following a disorder of equilibrium, which be conventional to Hicks modern trade cycle theory. In addition, Phillips used engineering systems expressions to the blocked loop systems, fabrication faults, positive and negative feedback, adjustment factor, habitual parameter are organized.   The economics of all this come up to from the neoclassical IS-LM model. Phillips precise the equations of the income expenditure relation or savings investment characteristics with investment depends on the interest rate and the accelerator, record modification, and liquidity preference. The labor supply based on the money wage rate, the usual Keynesian formulation. Later than, the Marshallian neoclassicist A. C. Pigou assault the fix-wage conference [74]. According to Pigou, there was a distinguished compassion in money wages-even if monopolist unit made this slow and only partly followed by a fall in real wages- because the drop in nominal values could have a actual balance effect on savings, which would direct to a increase in investment. Also, neoclassical Keynesians renowned that a decrease in nominal values, when liquidity preferences were not considerably flexible, would cause a decrease in the money rate of interest (the LM curve shifting right) and a rise in investment [43, 200]. Moreover, there exists exclusive equilibrium in the economy having full employment. In 1954, Phillips, possibly owing to his inter penalizing exercise provoke to smash from the conference of the neoclassical fusion. He depicts a association among the level of production and the rate of change of factor prices.   The merchandise price relatively than the money wage level emerges on the vertical axis since, given constant yield, there was a conversational relation among relative money wage and price changes. The economy was stable, defined by a steady price level. On the other hand there would be disequilibrium in the economy, if the firm slips up to produce the quantity relative to equilibrium demand. Changing price would receive effect, pretty like the Samuelson-Hansen linear model so as to, the rate of transformation of product prices (P) was relative to the difference of real production from the level of equilibrium. (The slighter the production error, the improved the linear equation would near to his nonlinear curve suggesting higher money wage stiffness in the unemployment range) [69, 308]. Afterward the price change moreover distorted the interest rate in the same or factual balances in the reverse course. To raise the speed of error correction, a monetary policy foundation on the mora lity of habitual modifiable systems would be sufficient [69, 315]. The original Phillips curve, like a courageous inference that begin development of a theoretical model in arithmetic or the physical sciences, was inwards at by deductive conjecture stated in green, a theoretical terms [48]; what neoclassical lane between micro and macro-economic it assured to free. Prior to that could happen, though, the Phillips supposition required systematic testing and theoretical proof. Pragmatic scrutiny When Phillips draft the 1954 curve which showed that money wage rate modification in deflation and inflation was irregular; he was annoying to integrate an old, admired observation into a hypothetical configuration. Phillips furnished an example of this examination.   When labor demand is lofty and very fewer are unemployed, we should anticipate employers bid wage rate fairly swift. On the other aspect, it emerge that workers are unwilling to offer their services at lower than the existing rates when the labor demand is low high unemployment faced by economy, so that wages become low very slowly. Inevitable, Phillipss study on a pragmatic model objectifying this trendy observation had its example [5]. The adjoining research was by Professor Arthur J. Brown [88]. Phillips and Brown mutually deliberate the history of wage transformation, using the same traditional data basis and pleasing the pre-World War I period as a foundation. Both researchers had the similar figures (that is the annual rate of adjust of money wage rates and unemployment percentages) confirmation on arithmetic flee diagrams casing the pre-World War I, interwar and post-World War II periods. They distinct the similar relationship between merchandise price and changes of money wag e rates. Both supposed a contrary relationship between unemployment and inflation inside each pre-World War I cycle. However, unlike Phillips, Brown stressed that the accurate inflation-unemployment relation diverse obviously from cycle to cycle. Furthermore, Brown supposed that cost transforms distinct to the plane of aggregate demand were the foremost reason of inflation during the post-World War I and II periods.   Browns immense inflation thus advocated policies of reducing cost [13]. In distinction, Phillips accomplished that there had been a steady century long, contrary relation among the rate of change of money wage and unemployment, and affirmed that the price plane would be steady if unemployment were reserved. The same research by two researchers escorted to inconsistent conclusions a general experience in the narration of science in which each experimenter inferred the pragmatic data according to his own preceding, hypothetical perception. Moreover, the consequences had instant policy proposition. In the mid-1950s, there was a animated arguments among demand-pull and cost-push bloc regarding the grounds of inflation and the policies implemented against inflation. Brown, a cost-push Keynesian, and numerous classmates of Phillips responsive of his continuing research energetically contributed in this [47]. Phillipss 1958 article really encouraged the demand-pull case. To sustain their de viating policies, Brown and Phillips keen to the similar facts, annual wage rate transforms and unemployment percents. But such essentials as recent methodologists have strained, were not specified but created. Phillips really sincerely condemns the data, which were very insufficient for the foundation period as the key sources were the records of trade unification to which few employees belong. Moreover, union wage records were of regular, not valuable rates.   Furthermore, Phillipss dealing of the data was mocked by economists at the Keynesian National Institute of Economics and Social Research (NIESR) [76]8 and Oxford Institute [45] because (1) Phillips exercise fixed weight wage and unemployment catalogs substituted of wage slanted indexes which permitted for transformation in numbers engaged by industry, (2) the unemployment and the wage sample did not comprise the same industries, and (3) the unemployment and wage sequence were not coordinated. By the era of 1960, statisticians had enhanced Phillipss scatter diagram. However they stress that the premature data could not sustain a particular statistical relation between wage inflation and unemployment. But Brown had not yet seen a broad relation. And the question was who had Phillips? Phillips simplifies the scatter diagram by pertaining a re

How College Students Use Wikipedia for Course-Related Essay

Why then are academics so wary about the use of Wikipedia within universities? There are a number of related reasons. Before outlining them we should acknowledge that there may be differences according to academic discipline in attitudes towards Wikipedia. Speaking to academics from the natural and medical sciences over the last year, it seems that those subjects are less concerned with issues of originality of source than the arts and social sciences. It also may be [pic] and this is genuine speculation [pic] that academics in the English speaking world, where most of the academic controversy over Wikipedia use has been, are more sensitive to the source than in other parts of the world. These qualifications aside, there are definite reasons why Wikipedia use is, at the very least, contentious in universities. First, it is the product of anonymous individuals rather than known authorities, Wales is quite explicit on this: One of the fastest things we’re beginning to lose is the view of the world that there are a handful of thoughtful, intelligent people that should be broadcasting their views to everyone. And then the public is some sort of crazed rabble, easily swayed by rhetoric and so forth. Now we have to have a more nuanced understanding. Wikipedia is not necessarily anti-academic but it is anti-elitist as evidenced by the short shrift given to eminent academics in debates when they expected deference (see Keen 2007, 43[pic]4). Second, the non-proprietary nature of Wikipedia cuts against academic culture which valorises the rights of the author and publisher. Third, the anonymity of Wikipedia articles is alien to the cache of the named writer of the journal article or book. Fourth, the collaborative process challenges the norm of individual creation, prevalent in the arts and social sciences. Fifth, as intimated, Wikipedia departs from the standard mode of vetting by peer review. It is not true that articles are not reviewed. On the contrary, they are scrutinised by far more editors than for any journal. However, as the contributor is generally not an academic expert, so the reviewer is not generally an academic expert. So Wikipedia rejects academic custom in the compilation of knowledge. In addition, there are a number of what might be termed ‘learning and teaching’ issues pertaining to its use within universities. First, there is the issue of the accuracy of Teaching in Higher Education 651 Downloaded by [University of Glasgow] at 05:27 12 December 2012 Wikipedia entries, something that relates to the lack of formal expertise and peer review. Reviews of the accuracy of Wikipedia entries by formal expert(s) have actually been generally positive (for natural sciences see Giles 2005; American history Meier 2008). Despite this, the suspicion still surrounds Wikipedia that it cannot be trusted. O’Sullivan’s (2009, 119) assertion that ‘most people probably have an ambivalent attitude toward Wikipedia, thankful for its existence, using it frequently, but with reservations about its total reliability’ seems valid. Some academics would no doubt sympathise with the sardonic observation of comedian Frankie Boyle that Wikipedia entries should begin with ‘I reckon’. Second, some have questioned whether Wikipedia’s determination for studied neutrality is convincing. O’Sullivan (2010) complains that as Wikipedia only displays one voice, diversity is not incorporated and therefore articles become bland. Wales’s response is unapologetic: ‘Guilty as charged, we’re an encyclopedia’ (in Read 2006). Not that his approach to knowledge is without theory, it derives rather from his admiration for the convoluted ‘objectivist philosophy’ of Aryan Rand, the Russian e?migre? philosopher and novelist (Younkins 2007). A third learning and teaching concern is that, regardless of the reliability of Wikipedia, it is in itself an illegitimate form of research. Here the thinking would be that a student who culls Wikipedia for assignments does not understand scholarship. This consists of the consideration of various sources: a judicious sifting and ordering of knowledge, rather than lifting bite sized chunks of text that purport to capture a subject. On this Wales concurs, telling students: ‘For God sake, you’re in college; don’t cite the encyclopedia’ (in Young 2006). Some universities in the US have banned Wikipedia use, whilst others recommend a more discriminating approach (Jaschik 2007; Murley 2008). The latter is what Wales and others within Wikipedia advise: it should be used only as a starting place in academic research, a references source and a revision aid. What, however, is the evidence on Wikipedia use by students and academics at universities?

Pyrometallurgical Recovery Of Metals From Electronic Waste Environmental Sciences Essay

Veldbuizen and Sipple ( 1994 ) acknowledged that stuffs come ining into the reactor are immersed in a liquefied metal bath where the temperature is around 1250 grades, which is churned by a mixture of supercharged air. The burning of plastics and other inflammable components in the eating procedure cut down the cost of energy. In the reactor, all drosss including Fe, Zn and lead are converted into oxides and so converted into scorias to silica by the agitated oxidization zone. These scorias are cooled and milled to acquire more and more metals before the disposal ( Cui & A ; Zhang, 2008 ) . The diagrammatic word picture of the works and the recycling procedure of E-waste are given below. These two diagrams will explicate how cast-off waste of Personal computers and laptops are recycled and disposed off. The Cu matte incorporating cherished metals is removed and transferred to the convertors. After the patterned advance in the convertors, liquid blister Cu is refined in anode furnaces and dramatis personae into anodes with about absolute pureness of 99.10 per centum. The residuary 0.9 per centum holds the valuable metals such as gold, Ag, Pt and Pd. There are besides some other recoverable stuffs like Ni, Se, Te etc. Afterwards, electro-refining of the anodes recovers these marketable metals ( Cui & A ; Zhang, 2008 ) . Fig-9 shows that E-waste can be fed into the procedure in different stairss depending upon their purenesss. High Cu incorporating bit is fed into change overing procedure straight but low class E-waste is fed into Kaldo Furnace. The needful O is supplied by the O spear for the intent of burning along with oil O burner. The off-gases require an extra burning air of about 1200 grades after burning. Thermal energy is recovered by a steam web through criterion gas handling system.Figure: – 8 Pyrometallurgical Recover Process at Recycling Plant( Beginning: Cui & A ; Zhang, 2008 )Figure: – 9 Recovery of Cherished Materials( Beginning: Cui & A ; bent, 2008 ) The installing of off-gas emanation control system in an IsaSmelt Furnace ( a new method of E-waste recycling and metal recovery ) is an illustration for retrieving thermic energy by a steam web through criterion gas handling system. Here the hygienic gases and procedure gases are cooled to retrieve the energy and are cleaned utilizing techniques like bag house filters, electro filters etc.2.12.3 Recovery of Cherished Metallic elements Using IsaSmelt Furnace:The smelting ( the procedure of runing to retrieve metal from its ore ) procedure in the recycling of E-waste is done in IsaSmelt Furnace ( Cui & A ; Zhang, 2008 ) . Like Pyrometallurgical Process one of the most of import advantages of utilizing this method is that the demand for energy beginning and cut downing agent for the smelting procedure will be quarterly substituted by the combustion of the organic substances like plastics that are present in the E-waste ( Hageluken, 2007 ) . The smelting procedure offprints cherished me tals in Cu bullion from other metals that are present in a lead scoria, which is further treated in a BMO. The cured Cu bullion is used in the following procedure of valuable metals recovery through copper-leaching ( a method used for the recovery of Cu from its ore ) and electro-winning ( method of taking drosss from the metals ) procedures. There are three nucleus processing stairss in the BMO: The Lead Blast Furnace: to diminish the oxidized lead scoria from the IsaSmelt together with high lead incorporating 3rd party natural stuffs. The Lead Refinery: the assorted lead bullion, roll uping most of the non-precious metals is farther treated here and the procedure is called Harris procedure. Particular Metallic elements Plant: pure metals are recovered in this works. ( Cui & A ; Zhang, 2008 ) The image of the emanation control system is as under and could be adapted by the recycling centres to cut down the degree of emanation. Hageluken ( 2007 ) , in his study accepted that the emanations from the works are much below the bounds set by the European bureaus and authorities.Figure: – 10 IsaSmelt Furnace Fitted With Emission Control System( Beginning: Cui & A ; Zhang, 2008 ) Apart from recycling methods like Pyrometallurgical Process and method utilizing IsaSmelt Furnace, bio-metallurgical procedure is another method of retrieving cherished metals from E-waste. Due to moo cost and high specificity for the mark elements, bio-metallurgical processing is attractive and soon limited to merely rich states ( Cui & A ; Zhang, 2008 ) . Brand et Al, ( 2001 ) displayed how Fungi ( Aspergillus Niger, Penicillium Simplicissmum ) and Thiobacillus bacteriums can enable metal filtrating from electronic bit. To retrieve gold, Cu etc from E-waste, Creamer et Al ( 2006 ) engaged Desulfovibrio Desulfuricans.2.13 Batteries: Recycling & A ; Material Recovery:Batteries are one of the terminal merchandises of E-waste recycling because it remains integral during the E-waste recycling procedure ( SWEEEP, 2010 ) . Land make fulling or Incineration of these batteries can do terrible wellness and environmental jeopardies ; when the shell of these land filled battery corrodes it can ensue in air, dirt and H2O pollution because it contains toxic substances like lead, quicksilver, Cd ( human carcinogen: substance that causes malignant neoplastic disease ) etc ( Frick & A ; Knudsen, 2002 ) . Similarly incineration of batteries will ensue in air pollution and other wellness jeopardies. On the other manus proper intervention and recycling of these batteries will be good both for the environment and for the economic system because it contains valuable stuffs like steel, Ag, nickel, Zn, manganese, gypsum etc which can be recovered and the harmful substances like lead, Cd, quicksilver can be safely separated and can be reused as secondary natural stuff ( G & A ; P, 2010 ) . UK generates 20,000 to 30,000 metric tons of waste batteries every twelvemonth and out of it less than 1,000 metric tons are recycled ( Resource Management & A ; Recovery, 2003 ) . Harmonizing to waste battery ordinances in Europe ( European Batteries Directive, 2006/ 66/EC ) , UK is needed to recycle 10 % of portable batteries in 2010, but in UK, merely 3 % of portable batteries are presently being recycled.2.13.1 Methods of Battery Recycling:Harmonizing to Espinosa, Bernardes & A ; Tenorio ( 2004 ) , it is imperative to cognize the composing of batteries in order to advance its recycling because the chemical composings of different batteries are different, so same methods can non be used for recycling different batteries. But unluckily there is no relationship between the size or form of batteries and their composing. There are chiefly three methods for the recycling of batteries: Pyrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy Separation of constituents through unity operations of excavation intervention Out of these three methods the most normally used method by all the recycling companies in UK and Europe are Pyrometallurgy and / or Robust Pyroprocess ( another method ) severally because of their simpleness and high efficiency / capacity ( even though the energy demands for these procedures are high ) ( Jan Tytgat, 2010 ) . The Pyrometallurgy and Robust Pyroprocess methods of recycling will be discussed in item in chapter four.2.13.1 Hydrometallurgy Method of Battery Recycling:In the past two decennaries, the most active research country on recovery of metals from battery is retrieving cherished metals by Hydrometallurgical procedure ( Horn & A ; Holt, 1990 ) . In this method the unsorted batteries are fed straight to the furnace. Inside the furnace the organic constituents will acquire decomposed to organize bluess ( Sequeira, 1994 ) . For illustration quicksilver compound will acquire decomposed to organize quicksilver vapor. These bluess are so passed through a capacitor to retr ieve quicksilver and other condensable liquids. The condensate will acquire fractionated by the centrifugation procedure into quicksilver, waste H2O etc. The waste H2O will so passed through an aluminum cementor to retrieve the residuary quicksilver in the signifier of an aluminium-mercury metal. The staying waste from the cementor is send to an evaporator to bring forth some steam or H2O and a salt mixture ( disposable ) in order to forestall the inordinate salt construct up in the procedure. The residuary gases and other organic bluess are oxidized in an afterburner and expelled to the ambiance in the signifier of H2O vapor and C dioxide after a careful intervention to take the staying sum of quicksilver since this quicksilver may incorporate hints of risky substance like Cd ( Sequeira, 1994 ) . The staying solids from the furnace are shredded and leached ( acid or acerb leaches ) before the magnetic separation of Fe and Ni from other non magnetic solids. The leaching solutions which contain oxides of C, Zn, manganese etc are so subjected to separation and purification processs such as precipitation of drosss, solvent extraction, ion-exchange etc. Consequently, the solutions are treated by electro refinement procedure for metal recovery ( Sequeira, 1994 ) . It is estimated that for retrieving a metric ton of Cu this procedure requires around 3,400KWh of energy ( Liew, 2008 ) . Precipitation of drosss is nil but the drosss present in the solution will go a precipitate ( solid ) during the chemical reaction, which can be removed subsequently by filtrating. Thus the staying liquid ( supernate ) above the solid containing cherished metals can be separated and cherished metals can be recovered by electro refinement. Electro refinement is a method of sublimating metal by electrolysis. Here the impure metal and cathode will be immersed in a solution ( electrolyte ) incorporating cations and electric current will be passed between the impure metal and cathode. As a consequence of it the pure metal will acquire deposited on the cathode and can be separated. Solvent Extraction is the procedure of dividing liquid mixtures by doing usage of solubility differences of the different constituents ( Cox & A ; Rydberg, 2004 ) . Ion-Exchange is an electrochemical procedure in which an unwanted chemical constituent is removed from solution by replacing it with a more attractive one ( Friedrich, 1995 ) . The chief terminal merchandises of this procedure are C and black lead which can be removed subsequently by filtration. Compared to Pyrometallurgical procedure Hydrometallurgy is more exact and predictable but its operating cost is high and it is more complicated ( Sequeira, 1994 ) . This method is chiefly used for the recycling of lithium-ion, nickel Cd, Zn oxide and quicksilver oxide batteries.Figure: -11 Hydrometallurgy Method of Battery Recycling( Beginning: Sequeira, 1994 )2.13.2 Separation of Components through Unity Operations of Mining Treatment:Separation of constituents through unity operations of excavation intervention method is besides used for battery recycling ( e.g. nickel Cd batteries ) . Using this method more than 2kg of Ni home bases present in a nickel Cd battery can be recovered. A compound with a high sum of Cd can besides be obtained and can be farther treated ( cadmium distillment ) to retrieve the stuff. This method is non used often because of its high oper ating cost and complexness ( Espinosa, Bernardes & A ; Tenorio, 2004 ) .2.13.3 Recycling Procedures under Pyrometallurgy & A ; Hydrometallurgy:There are several battery recycling procedures that works by the Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy rules. Sometimes these procedures are designed for specific sort of battery, but there are some in which batteries can be recycled together with other types of stuffs. The procedures are as follows: Sumitomo: It is a Nipponese procedure which is wholly based on calcinations ( method of change overing metals to its oxide at high temperature ) at about 1000 grade centigrade in a furnace ( Tedjar et al, 2010 ) . Its cost is really high and it is used to recycle all types of portable batteries e.g. lithium-ion battery. The residues formed as a consequence of calcinations is crushed and screened. The residuary pulverization will incorporate oxides of different metals. It is non suited for recycling nickel Cd batteries.Figure: -12 Sumitomo Method of Battery Recycling( Beginning: Sequeira, 1994 ) Recytec: It is the Swiss procedure that combines pyrolysis ( thermic intervention ) , gas intervention, tear uping, rinsing, electrolysis ( for non-ferrous substances ) followed by magnetic separation and other physical interventions ( Sequeira, 1994 ) . It is used for recycling all types of portable batteries and besides fluorescent lamps and quicksilver incorporating tubings. Initially pyrolysis is done at 550 grade centigrade in a reduction atmosphere and the waste gases produced during this procedure are passed through a capacitor for purification. The solids that left after the pyrolysis are shredded and washed with H2O to call up different salts and oxides. The oxides of manganese and zinc get dissolved in an acidic leaching process and these are at the same time separated by an electrodeposition procedure. Ferro-magnetic stuffs are separated by magnetic separation procedure from other non magnetic substances like black lead. The stuffs separated by the magnetic separation procedure so enter into an electrochemical system and from here the stuffs are separated by anodal disintegration method. The method of anodal disintegration offers 99 % pureness of the metals recovered.Figure: -13 Recytec Method of Battery Recycling( Beginning: Sequeira, 1994 ) This procedure does non recycle nickel Cd batteries. The initial investing for this procedure is smaller than that for the Sumitomo procedure, but its operating cost is high ( Espinosa, Bernardes & A ; Tenorio, 2004 ) . Another advantage of this procedure compared to Sumitomo is its first-class recycling efficiency of 95 % i.e. merely 5 % of secondary waste. TNO: It is a Hydrometallurgical Dutch procedure for the recycling of bit batteries. This procedure developed two recycling options one for alkaline family batteries and the other for nickel Cd batteries. The option for family batteries was non commercially implemented ( Espinosa, Bernardes & A ; Tenorio, 2004 ) . In this procedure the waste batteries are foremost shredded into little ( all right ) fractions. Many metal and plastic parts can be retained from these all right fractions. These all right fractions are so subdivided into two fractions: magnetic and nonmagnetic. Then both these fractions will be leached with hydrochloric acid to fade out the Cd content in it. The magnetic atoms like Fe and Ni will be separated by magnetic separation procedure after the leaching procedure. These separated Fe and nickel atoms will incorporate Cd and this Cd can be removed by extraction procedure with the aid of TBP. The Cd salt from the infusion will be farther removed by acerb extraction. The sourness of the so formed Cd chloride is so adjusted to precipitate residuary Fe as ferrous hydrated oxide and it is separated by the filtration procedure. By utilizing the electrolysis procedure metallic Cd will be recovered and the staying solution is discarded ( Sequeira, 1994 ) . Accurec: It is a German Pyrometallurgical procedure to recycle batteries chiefly used for nickel Cd batteries. This procedure has got several advantages like: it is merely a one measure procedure compared to other procedures, the emanation of green house gases to the ambiance is less ( & gt ; 0.01g/h ) , it is energy efficient and a extremely secured procedure ( Accurec, 2010 ) .Figure: -14 Accurec Method of Battery Recycling( Beginning: Accurec, 2010 ) Snam-Savam: Gallic procedure for Ni Cd battery recycling, wholly based on Pyrometallurgy method ( Espinosa, Bernardes & A ; Tenorio, 2004 ) . This is a closed furnace battery recycling technique in which Cd is distilled at 850-900 grade centigrade. This method offers 99.9 % pureness of the cured stuffs ( Sequeira & A ; Moffat, 1997 ) . Sab Nife: Swedish procedure for Ni Cd batteries. This method is besides based on Pyrometallurgy. In this method the Cd is distilled at high temperature ( 850-900 grade centigrade ) in a reduction atmosphere. Then the Cd is chemically leached with the aid of sulfuric acid and eventually Cd is recovered from the leachate by electrolysis ( Sequeira & A ; Moffat, 1997 ) . Atech: This procedure is based on the physical intervention of cast-off batteries ; it is holding relatively lower cost than the other types of recycling procedures but the pureness of the cured stuffs will non be high. It is used for recycling all types of portable batteries. Recycling Companies does non trust on any individual method or procedure but it uses the combinations of many methods and procedures for the recycling of assorted types of batteries, as it is apparent that there are many types of batteries holding different forms, size and chemical composing. So, the company uses the method and procedure which are suited for the peculiar set of batteries.Table aa‚ ¬ † 11: Valuable Materials that can be recovered by Battery Recycling:Name of the BatteryMaterials that can be RecoveredLead Acid Lead, Polypropylene, Gypsum Zincs Based Steel, Zinc, Manganese Nickel Cadmium Nickel, Steel, Cadmium Lithium-Ion Cobalt, Steel Silver Oxide Silver, Steel Mercuric Oxide Mercury, Steel ( Beginning: G & A ; P, 2010 ) These recovered metals and stuffs has got many applications like: lead and Cd can be used for doing batteries once more, steel and Ni can be used in the steel industry, polypropene can be used for doing battery instances, gypsum can be used for agricultural intents, Co and Ag can be used in electronic and photographic industries etc. Overall E-waste is really insecure for the environment and for the human wellness. On the other manus if proper recycling Centres are established, the economic system as a whole would be benefited and there would be fewer loads on natural resources like gold, Cu, aluminum, Ag and other cherished metals and stuffs. In this manner the reuse rate would be increased and less emanation of green house gases would happen. It would be good for the environment, human wellness and national economic system of the UK to set up proper and dedicated recycling Centres to better the status. UK particularly needs it, as it has the highest figure of computing machine users. As per estimated information there are at present 360 million computing machine users in UK ( Internet World Statistics, 2009 ) . One can easy do appraisal of the volume of E-waste, maintaining in head the maximal life of computing machines and replacing in UK.2.14 Decision:From the reappraisal of the available literature, it can b e argued that E-waste is earnestly really unsafe for the environment and for the human wellness every bit good. The whole universe needs to take proper enterprise for managing E-waste and there should be dedicated recycling Centre for it. Although, there are enterprises that have been taken but those are non plenty as the measure of E-waste is turning twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours. The authoritiess across Europe and the authorities of UK have enacted Torahs and directives for extenuating the ill-impact of E-waste. After the earth acme in 1992, two ordinances have been enforced to extenuate the ill-effect of E-waste i.e. the Swiss ORDE ordinance and EU WEEE ordinance. Under both the ordinances, the list of electronic points is by and big same and contains about the same list. The turning market for Personal computers and its incursion and replacing markets in developed states like UK and high obsolescence rate have made WEEE as one of the fastest turning waste watercourses. Puckett & A ; Smith ( 2002 ) approximately estimate the chemical and non-chemical substance nowadays in E-waste and it is truly really flooring as the measure projected could be highly harmful for the environment and human wellness. Precisely, it could be wellness jeopardy as the chemicals present in E-waste are lead, Cd, quicksilver, plastics etc ( Culver, 2005 ) . If these chemical substances and metals are burned, it will hold terrible impact on the environment and on the human wellness. Widmer et Al, ( 2005 ) say that these E-waste contains extremely toxic chemicals and the paradox is that the UK and EU is bound to dispose E-waste within their ain geographical country as they are obliged to follow the directives because the directives of the Basel Norms prohibits them to merchandise with Non-OECD states. The UK authorities is really serious for the environmental protection and it explores what actions might be taken and poses inquiries, on which remarks and suggestions are invited from a scope of participants including the general populace. Phillips et Al ( 1998 ) argues that there is an pressing demand for the effectual protection of the environment and prudent usage of natural resources, so that the sustainable development programme could non be hampered. The direction of E-waste is acknowledged as indispensable to the sustainable development in UK. Earlier, the E-waste has used to be disposed through land fill and incineration. Landfill is / was non an effectual manner to dispose E-waste as it is non bio-degradable and used to harm the birthrate of the land. Incineration is besides really unsafe as it can breathe a batch of harmful gases and substances. Spalvins et Al ( 2008 ) and Dagan et Al ( 2007 ) argued against the disposal of E-waste along with MSW as the toxic features could non be mitigated through landfill and could dispute regulative conformity. To get the better of this serious menace authorities has introduced the construct of EPR both lawfully and operationally. It involves dealing cost, aggregation cost, recycling cost and other types of costs. The makers besides have to negociate with recycling Centres and to place the aggregation centres so that E-waste could be collected expeditiously and economically. The makers are now bound to do such electronic merchandises so that at least 70 % to 80 % ( by weight ) of the stuffs could be collected from recycling and the reuse rate of stuffs must non less than 50 % by weight so that natural resources could be protected. There are presently assorted theoretical accounts have been adopted for the direction of E-waste. Among that the four stage theoretical account is really effectual. Another extension of the EPR is the ARF. It is collected at the clip of purchase of electrical equipments and besides from the terminal users, so that the recycling procedure could be financed once the merchandise is discarded by the terminal users. The cast-off E-waste particularly the personal computing machines bits are valuable in the sense that it carries metals about 70 % of the weight of computing machines and are reclaimable. This is the major drive force behind the recycling of E-waste as every company want to understate the input cost and maximize the profitableness. Earlier Pyrometallurgy is used for the recovery of valuables metals from the bit E-waste. However there are some failings in this method. It was non really friendly for the environment as there is more emanation of green house gases. Cui & A ; Zhang ( 2008 ) argue that the retrieval of energy from E-waste pave the manner for utilizing plastics in E-waste. Now it has been apparent that thermic processing of E-waste delivers an attack for recovery of energy from E-waste if a broad runing emanation control system is installed. The batteries that are the terminal merchandises of E-waste recycling can be farther recycled to retrieve and divide cherished stuffs like steel, Ag, nickel etc and toxic substances like lead, Cd etc severally. The recovery and separation of these metals and stuffs will farther lend to the economic system of the state and sustainability of the environment. There are several methods and procedures for battery recycling and no same method or procedures can be used for different batteries since they differ in their chemical composing. The procedure of Pyrometallurgy and Robust Pyroprocess are sooner used by the recycling companies in Europe. From the available literature it can be argued that most of the above mentioned recycling procedure / methods offer about 90 % to 95 % pureness of the cured metals and stuffs which is an advantage. On the other manus these methods have got many disadvantages. Most of these procedures / methods that works under the rule of Hydrometallurgy are complicated as it needs to undergo many other sub-processes in between ( except few procedures like Accurec ) , e.g. it needs to undergo tear uping procedure before the existent recycling. Hydrometallurgy procedures are most of the clip dedicated to merely a peculiar type of battery chemical science / little scope of different chemical sciences ( Jan Tytgat, 2010 ) . Higher energy demand is another disadvantage of these methods ( chiefly for procedures that works under Pyrometallurgy rule ) . For illustration most the methods required energy of about 1000 degree centigrade or more. As consequence of it the operating cost is high. Discarding the terminal merchandise which contains valuable metals ( which can still be recovered ) is another disadvantage. Discarding of the staying solution after the electrolysis of Cd in the TNO procedure is an illustration for this. As mentioned above the loss of staying 5 % to 10 % pureness of cured stuffs is besides an of import affair that needs to be considered

Effect of Womens Self-Esteem on Voting for Trump - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3637 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/10/30 Category Sociology Essay Level High school Tags: Self Esteem Essay Did you like this example? The Effect of Womens Self-Esteem on Voting for Donald Trump Introduction: It is hard to get people to tell the truth about their political beliefs, especially if they hold the fear of being judged. I have noticed both on and off William Mary campus that people, women especially, are hesitant to say they voted for Donald Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election. While there are many potential reasons for this, the various sexual assault allegations and clear disrespect and aggression toward women during his campaign could be among them. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Effect of Womens Self-Esteem on Voting for Trump" essay for you Create order When asked, fellow students have said they would prefer not to share their voting behavior because they fear being judged anti-feminist, or being told they are reinforcing social stereotypes of women. Given these quiet hesitations, I am curious to know a woman would have voted for Trump. There are the obvious reasons; maybe they liked his views on social or economic issues, or perhaps the mistrust of Hillary Clinton throughout the email scandal held too much priority in their eyes. While these can be real and important factors in a voting decision, there must be more to the story.In this test, I attempt to uncover the less visible reasons. I believe that the personality of the individual has some underlying effect on their decision to vote for Trump. Specifically, the self-esteem of the individual. If carried out, this study would show the effects that the independent variable (self-esteem of women) has on the dependent variable (whether they voted for him). The hypothesis is to see if women with higher levels of self-esteem in the United States are less likely to have voted for Trump in the most recent Presidential Election, thus, would be showing a negative correlation.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Why it is Important: There are over 200 million registered voters in the United States, and probably as many reasons for choosing a specific candidate as there are voters. Humans are complex, and our decisions, while clear to us, do not always make the most sense to others. Women, along with all citizens, tend to vote based on ideology, party affiliation, and family voter history. (Scott 2018). However, it is not always so clear-cut. It is easy to make assumptions based on what we know about people and their values, but I believe there are many explanations as to why people vote the way they do, and this is crucial to unravel.Who Voted for Trump:It is important to first separate some of the general, large voting categories when thinking about who voted for Trump. Starting with gender, Trump won a majority of the male vote, with 52% (CNN Exit Polls 2016). When looking at his base in regard to age, Trump attracted the 40- year-old and older demographic, winning 52% of that vote (CNN Ex it Polls 2016). Trump won the majority of white voters (57%)(CNN Exit Polls 2016), while Hillary Clinton won a strong majority of all minority races. When putting race and gender together, Trump was victorious both with white women and white men (CNN Exit Polls 2016).   Zeroing in on the specifics of the women more likely to have voted for Trump is another key component of this research. 38% percent of women who voted for Trump said that they were or would have the tendency to typically lean Republican (Scott 2018). 47% percent of this number were white women who identified as Republican (Scott 2018). Despite Trumps various sexual assault allegations along with other questionable and offensive remarks about women, he still won the vote of 52% of voting-eligible white women (Scott 2018). When education is brought into the picture, more than 61% of white women without a college-level degree voted for Trump (Scott 2018). When asked what Trump voters hoped he would accomplish in office involving issues surrounding womens rights, 77% of female Trump voters surveyed said that they hoped to see Trump and his administration advance equal rights for women (Young 2017). Yet, on this same topic, 39% of female Trump voters found Trumps demeaning comments ab out women offensive and hurtful (Young 2017). Literature Review Existing Research on Variables that Drove Women to Vote for Trump There are many reasons why women decided to vote for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. Trump held positions on certain social issues that were drastically different from that of his opponent Hillary Clinton. For example, his positions on free markets, smaller government, and ending legal abortion were strongly supported by certain female voters (Scott 2018). Another significant reason women voted for Donald Trump was because of their displeasure with the status-quo (Young 2017). In one instance, Sally, a 62-year-old lawyer from the Northeast who identifies as politically independent voted for Trump reluctantly due to her displeasure with Obamas previous policies regarding campus sexual assault (Young 2017). Sally and her son, along with many others, showed much concern about the 2011 federal guidelines that led colleges to obtain Title IX sex discrimination policies (Young 2017). Title IX makes it possible to punish accused students with less proof and without due proce ss (Young 2017). For women that have personal issues with this, like Sally and her son, this one prominent stance could be all it takes for Trump to win the vote. Along these lines, a lot of women saw Trump as breaking the mold. Some felt he, as a non-politician, would bring a new kind of leadership to the country. Others voted for Donald Trump because they felt the Democrats were increasingly leaning too far left (Young 2017). Some women were sick of the constant political correctness they felt the country was moving towards. Specifically, on campuses, some female college students were annoyed and angered by the constant PC language infiltrating the culture (Young 2017). This is part of the reason some females could shrug off Trumps offensive comments all the fuss felt like just another cry for political correctness. In a Washington Post article written a year and a half after the election, a-22-year old Trump supporter said that Trumps   degrading language toward women bothers me, and his views on global warming are a problem for me. I do not 100% love Trump, but I am convinced he can lead this nation. I was part of the silent majority, (Scott 2018). So, although a lot of the women who voted for Trump did not fully agree with everything he stood for, they were convinced he could lead the nation in ways that Clinton could not. The Impact of Womens Self Esteem on Other Variables In our society, self-confidence has been and continues to be stereotyped as a masculine trait. While boys are expected to show their masculinity through self-confidence, self-confidence in women is still often experienced as aggressive or pushy, (Tannen 2016). As Deborah Tannen so perfectly pointed out, While the qualities expected of a good leader (be forceful, confident, and at times, angry) are similar to those we expect of a good man, they are the opposite of what we expect of a good woman (be gentle, self-deprecating and emotional, but not angry), (Tannen 2016). This is a lose-lose scenario for women they are either seen as having a lack of confidence and incompetent or, on the flip side, as being too aggressive. We can see this starting from childhood. From as young as middle school, there are gender-segregated playgroups that enforce gender and conformity at a brutally young age (Kling, Hyde, Showers, Buswell 1999). Starting from a young age, girls have a hard time influencin g boys and obtaining valuable resources when in unsupervised mixed-gender groups, (Kling et al., 1999, pg. 472). This, consequently, can make girls feel less powerful and important at a young age, impacting their self-esteem and affecting the way they live their lives in later years. The self-esteem of women has a large effect on their ability to make decisions. One example of this is reflected in the way women behave professionally. This theory was presented by Gail Hackett and Nancy Betz. They found that, with work, womens general lack of self-esteem leads them to underestimate their abilities and their worth, causing them to waste potential talent (Betz, Hackett 1981). This is especially prevalent when pursuing an interest in a potential career path women often stop themselves from moving forward in a career strictly because of their lack of confidence. In large part, this behavior can be attributed to socialization (Betz, Hackett 1981). Socialization over time has led women to feel as though they need to respond to norms in stereotypical ways, restraining them from considering all possible career options, and limiting them to roles and careers that are seen as traditional (Betz, Hackett 1981). Because of this, women are still underrepresented in many careers, especially careers with higher paying salaries. This theory shows that there is a clear relationship between the career development of women, and their belief in their ability to succeed (Betz, Hackett 1981). Along with the idea of socialization comes stereotyping. Sex-roles and occupational stereotyping in the media are still prominent, serving as unintentional role models for young women in their formative years (Betz, Hackett 1981). While society is slowly moving away from these norms, it is still deeply rooted in our culture and affects the way women make career decisions.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One study done explored stability and levels of self-esteem as indicators and predictors of anger arousal and hostility (Kernis, Grannemann, Barclay 1989). Although at least some level of anger and hostility are to be expected by every individual at some point or another in their life, this study found a correlation between levels of self-esteem and frequent anger/hostility. The researchers gave their subjects many different pretest assessment surveys, testing their stableness, levels of self-esteem, and levels of anger and hostility (Kernis et al., 1989). They assessed levels of self-esteem by using Rosenbergs Self-Esteem Scale, a very well known and validated measure of global self-testing. To test the level of stability, subjects were given Rosenbergs Stability Scale. This is a 5-item scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, with the purpose of assessing phenomenal self-esteem stability, (Kernis et al., 1989). Some of the questions/statements include (Webster, Smit h, Brunell, Paddock, Nezlek 2017) : Do you find that on one day you have one opinion of yourself and on another day you have a different opinion?I have noticed that my ideas about myself seem to change very quicklySome days I have a very good opinion of myself; other days I have a very poor opinion of myselfIt is important to take a closer look at the meaning of stability and instability in this assessment. If someone agrees or strongly agrees with the majority of statements such as these, they can be classified as unstable (Kernis, Grannemann, Barclay 1989). They do not have a steady, positive view of themselves at all times, for it can be easily changed (Kernis et al., 1989). Lastly, to assess levels of anger and hostility, subjects were given four different assessments: Novacos Anger Inventory, Trait Anger Scale, Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory, and the Zelin Anger Self-Report Scale (Kernis et al., 1989). For my test, I plan on operationalizing differences by associating instability with low self-esteem. The researchers of this study found that there was a much greater tendency of unstable high self-esteem individuals to experience anger (Kernis et al., 1989). An unstable high self-esteem individual can have the appearance of seeming confident with themselves but are putting up a front to hide their insecure and sensitive selves (Kernis et al., 1989). On the other hand, stable high self-esteem individuals, those who hold secure, positive, self-views, are less likely to be angry throughout their lives.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Women have consistently reported showing lower satisfaction with their appearance than men (Kling et al., 1999). Because women have been socialized by media to be harsh critics of their bodies, then it only makes sense they would not have the capability to expect the best treatment by others. This is shown especially in women with physical disabilities. Some studies have suggested that women with high levels of physical impairment are associated with having lower body and sexual self-esteem (Hassouneh-Phillips, McNeff 2005). Specifically, with regards to women with physical disabilities, body esteem is a crucial factor in their overall mental health and self-esteem (Hassouneh-Phillips, McNeff 2005). Dena Hassouneh-Phillips and Elizabeth McNeff completed a qualitative study regarding the abuse of women with physical disabilities. Seventy-two individual interviews were completed, and each woman had at most 3 interviews. The results of the study suggested that women with high degrees of physical impairment are more likely to feel inadequate and unappealing than those with mild to no physical impairment (Hassouneh-Phillips, McNeff 2005). As a result of low self-esteem and negative self-perceptions, women with these disabilities are more susceptible to getting into and remaining in an abusive relationship (Hassouneh-Phillips, McNeff 2005). Because of the circumstances these women find themselves in, they often times have lower levels of self-esteem, causing them to lack the ability to stand up for themselves in a toxic relationship. Women with physical disabilities are especially vulnerable individuals, as shown by the high rates of abuse and victimization.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lastly, there was a study done on adolescent self-esteem and the effect that low self-esteem has on mental and physical health, as well as adult criminal convictions. After the study was completed, the results were astounding. Starting with the effects of low self-esteem on mental health, researchers found that adolescents with low self-esteem were to have more mental health issues in adulthood than those with high self-esteem (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Specifically, after all of the studies and reports were completed, they found that adolescents with low-self esteem were 1.26 times more likely to develop major depression, 1.60 times more likely to develop an anxiety disorder, and 1.32 times more likely to be dependent on tobacco in later years (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Many potential lurking variables were controlled for in this study, some of which include the increased risk of gender and adolescent depression (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). The study also found that adolescents with low self-esteem were more likely than those who grew up with high self-esteem to have physical impairments, such as poor cardiovascular health (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Finally, adolescents with lower levels of self-esteem were found to be 1.32 times more likely to get in trouble for any type of crime in their adulthood, and 1.48 times more likely to be found guilty of committing a violent crime (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). My Expectation (Hypothesis) and Why (Theory):I expect that women with higher levels of self-esteem would have been less likely to vote for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. As women, it is confusing and difficult to understand why one would vote for a presidential candidate who objectifies and is demeaning toward women. However, there must have been something about those individuals that made them vote the way they did. I believe a big factor in their decision stems from personality traits, specifically self-esteem. Many studies cited above show the strong effect that identity and self-esteem had on all aspects of a womans life whether that be as big a decision involving their career, or simply their mood on a given day. It is my intention to test if self-esteem has as big of an impact on voting as it does these other factors. Carrying It Out: To measure the impact that varying levels of self-esteem have on womens decision to vote or not vote for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, I will be conducting a survey. I will use a random stratified sample of 2500 women in the United States, regardless of party affiliation, race, and other demographics. It is important to note that because the sample used will be random and stratified, all potential differences between women coming into the study will not be controlled for. I decided to limit my sample population to women because, as noted above, they are already predisposed to low self-esteem. The study will be carried out as follows: Individual women will come in and sit at desktops, unable to see or talk to anyone around them. When they begin the survey, they will be asked a standard battery of controls that are commonly seen throughout many surveys. This information will mostly be demographic, including questions regarding their age, race, religio n, income, a region of the country they live in, and party affiliation (Greenwald, Farnham 2000). I plan on making these questions self-descriptive so that subjects feel comfortable giving their most honest response, while also making sure I leave no room for exclusion (Greenwald, Farnham 2000). By doing this, I avoid the potential to receive skewed responses later in my survey. Getting this basic information out of the way also helps to eliminate the possibility of potential lurking variables.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Next, the subjects will be taken to the heart of the survey (of course, they will not know this). The first questionnaire they will be given is the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. This scale has been widely used in many psychological studies and is validated by researchers across the board. It is conducted on a 1-5 point scale, with 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3= neutral, 4= disagree and 5 = strongly disagree. Below are some of the statements I plan on putting in my survey (Rosenberg 1989):On the whole, I am satisfied with myselfI feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal basis with othersI feel that I have a number of good qualitiesI am able to do things as well as most other peopleI take a positive attitude towards myselfWhile most, if not all, of these statements lean toward the positive side, it is important to receive responses of individuals when thinking about themselves in a negative light. Below are those statements (Rosenberg 1989):All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failureI feel I do not have much to be proud ofI certainly feel useless at timesAt times I think I am no good at allI wish I could have more respect for myselfIt is crucial to place these statements in a random order (with positive and negative statements varying), while also changing the order for each individual who takes the survey. This way, the choice order effect and the question order effect can be avoided.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the next page, I will include items from the Global Self-Worth Subscale of Harters Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC). Although a child is not of voting age and will not be included in my sample population, I found that some of these statements can be carried over from childhood to adulthood. They include (Kling et al., 1999):The extent to which the respondents feel they are happy with the way they areIf the respondents are pleased with the way they are living their lifeWhile the questions from the Self-Esteem Scale dive into specific traits and insecurities, these two statements above bring the subject back into a macro level, broad thinking.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While all the above are attempts to measure everything related to my independent variable, levels of self-esteem in women, I have not yet measured my dependent variable, whether or not they voted for Trump. This comes last. After all of my self-esteem related questions are answered, I will bring the subject back to where they started with seemingly innocent, generic, demographic questions. Little does the subject know, however, that I am now testing one of the most important aspects of my hypothesis, my dependent variable. As of now, I do not know how they voted in the election. First I will ask Did you vote in the 2016 presidential election? If they respond yes, they will be moved to another page where it asks What presidential candidate did you vote for? The options will be: Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Gary Johnson. There will also be a blank space provided that says Other, giving subjects the opportunity to type in another candidate if they so choose. My hope is that subje cts will be less suspicious if I ask these questions at the end.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To control for potential lurking variables stated at the beginning of the literature review, I would use the appropriate statistical mean. Works Cited CNN Exit Polls. (2017, November/December). CNN Politics. Cable News Network. Retrieved November, 2017, from https://www.cnn.com/election/2016/results/exit-polls Greenwald, A. Farnham, S. (2000, December). Using the Implicit Association Test to Measure Self-Esteem and Self-Concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (pg 1022-1038). Volume 76. Issue 6. Hackett, G. Betz, N. (1981, June). A Self-Efficacy Approach to the Career Development of Women. Journal of Vocational Behavior (pg. 326-339). Volume 18. Issue 3. Hassouneh-Phillips, D. McNeff, E. (2005, December). I Thought I was Less Worthy: Low Sexual and Body Esteem and Increased Vulnerability to Intimate Partner Abuse in Women with Physical Disabilities. Sexuality and Disability (pg. 23-227). Springer US. Volume 23. Issue 4. Kernis, M. H., Grannemann, B. D., Barclay, L. C. (1989). Stability and Level of Self-Esteem as Predictors of Anger Arousal and Hostility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (pg 1013-1022). Volume 56. Issue 6. Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J., Buswell, B. N. (1999, July). Gender Differences in Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin (pg. 470-500). Volume 125. Issue 4. Rosenberg, M. (1989). Self-Esteem Scale. Society and Adolescent Self Image (pg. 325-327). Wesleyan University Press. Scott, E. (2018, January 22). Analysis | White Women Helped Elect Trump. Now hes Losing Their Support. WP Company. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2018/01/22/white-women-helped-elect-trump-now-hes-losing-their-support/?utm_term=.ada00fcd2002 Tannen, D. (2016, February 19). Our Impossible Expectations of Hillary Clinton and All Women in Authority. WP Company. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/our-impossible-expectations-of-hillary-clinton-and-all-women-in-authority/2016/02/19/35e416d0-d5ba-11e5-be55-2cc3c1e4b76b_story.html?utm_term=.da2e4651793d Trzesniewski, K. Moffitt, T. Poulton, R. Donnellan, M. Robins, R. Caspi, A. (2006). Low Self-Esteem During Adolescence Predicts Poor Health, Criminal Behavior, and Limited Economic Prospects During Adulthood. Developmental Psychology (pg. 381-390). American Psychological Association. Volume 42. Issue 2. Webster, G. Smith, C. Brunell, A. Paddock, E. Nezlek, J. (2017, August). Can Rosenbergs (1965) Stability of Self Scale Capture Within-Person Self-Esteem Variability? Meta-Analytic Validity and Testâ€Å"Retest Reliability. Journal of Research in Personality (pg. 156-159). Elsevier. Volume 69. Young, C. (2017, March/April). The Other Womens Movement. (Cover story). Foreign Policy (pg. 26-35) Issue 223.